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Rhode Island Education Circulars 

RHODE ISLAND'S RANK 
AMONG THE STATES 



Reprinted from the Seventy-Sixth Annual Report of 
the Commissioner of Education 




STATE OF RHODE ISLAND 
COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 



Monograph 






\^ 



By Transfer 

SEP 24 1923 



Rhode Island Education Circulars 



Rhode Island's Rank Among the States 



Reprinted from the Seventy-Sixth Annual Report of 
the Commissioner of Education 



Index numbers for state school systems, computed recently from 
statistics gathered by the United States Bureau of Education, indi- 
cate that Rhode Island has advanced from 39.27 in 1890 to 43,05 in 
1900, to 50.84 in 1910, and 56.33 in 1918. Rhode Island statistics 
for 1918 give an index number of 61.09. In spite of what appears 
to be a record of substantial progress, the author of a volume pub- 
lished recently by the Russell Sage Foundation* estimates that 
Rhode Island holds twenty-sixth place among the fifty-two states 
and other territorial divisions of the United States, and that Rhode 
Island relatively has lost rank, going from fifth place in 1890 to sixth 
place in 1900, to tenth place in 1910, and to twenty-sixth place in 
1918. Rhode Island statistics for 1918 would place Rhode Island in 
ninth position. An apparent loss of position in the face of substantial 
progress may be explained by greater progress elsewhere, but this 
explanation is not satisfactory. In view of the widespread publicity 
given to the findings of the author and to conclusions drawn there- 
from hastily and sometimes without justification, and more par- 
ticularly because there is so wide divergence between his figures and 
those determined by Rhode Island statistics, it seems desirable to 
discuss the measures used, the methods of computation employed, 
the basis on which measurements were taken, the reliability of the 
statistics as weighted by the author, the merit of the tests, and the 
validity of the conclusions drawn. 

Index numbers for the states are estimated from ten sets of figures 
as follows: (1) percentage of school population attending school 
daily, (2) average days attended by each child of school age, (3) 
average number of days schools were kept open, (4) percentage that 

*An Index Number for State School Systems. Leonard P. Ayres. New York: Russell 
Sage Foundation. 



4 RHODE island's RANK AMONG THE STATES. 

high school attendance was of total attendance, (5) percentage that 
boys were of girls in high schools, (6) average expenditure per child 
in average attendance, (7) average expenditure per child of school age, 
(8) average expenditure per teacher employed, (9) expenditure per 
pupil for purposes other than teachers' salaries, (10) expenditure per 
teacher employed for salaries. Essentially the sets of figures are 
concerned with two facts, and these are attendance and expenditure ; 
ten tests or measurements are made from combinations of statistics 
of these two facts with other statistics. A brief discussion of the 
tests follows: 

1. The percentage of school population attending schocl daily . The 
test in this instance rests upon the percentile relation of average daily 
attendance in public schools to school population, or children more 
than five and less than eighteen years of age. In determining index 
numbers for 1918 figures for school population were taken from the 
United States Census of 1910, and weighted by an estimated increase 
in population based on the experience of the ten years from 1900 to 
1910. Completed state reports of the census of 1920 have demon- 
strated that rates of increase may vary widely in successive decades, 
and indicate the potential inaccuracy of estimates of the type made. 
Changes of population from 1910 to 1920 varied in the several states 
from sixty-three per cent increase clown past zero to actual losses. 
It is significant, but not a matter for surprise, that the states that 
made the greatest relative gains in the author's tables in position in 
1918 as compared with 1910 are among those that made the greatest 
gains in population in the ten years between 1910 and 1920, and that 
the three states that actually lost in population made substantial 
losses in positions established by index numbers. The reason appears 
in gains in enrollment vastly surpassing estimated gains in school 
population with the upper group, and the reverse relation in the lower 
group. The latter lost enrollment while assumed population in- 
creased according to estimate; when the census figures for 1920 were 
published it was seen that apparently retarded enrollment was cor- 
related to decreasing population. The author was content to publish 
his book, however, in spite of so marked inconsistencies as enroll- 
ment exceeding school population in at least four instances; and 
these among those that took highest rank in his tabulations. If his 
statistics were accurate after being weighted, 123 children were en- 
rolled in public schools in Montana for every 100 children resident in 
the state, 108 children were enrolled in public schools in Arizona for 



iRHODE island's RANK AMONG THE STATES. 5 

every 100 children resident in the state, 108 children were enrolled in 
public schools in the District of Columbia for every 100 children 
resident in the district, and 106 children were enrolled in public 
schools in California for every 100 children resident in the state. 
One who would defend the use of such statistics must explain not only 
how more children could be enrolled than were resident, but also the 
whereabouts of children not attending school because released law- 
fully for employment in the years beyond compulsory school age, and 
of children not attending school in spite of compulsory attendance 
requirements. Under the most nearly perfect conditions of en- 
forcement of law there is always at least a small number of the class 
last mentioned. The excess of enrollment over school population 
should have suggested at least a further consideration of the accuracy 
of estimated school population. It is true that the author used 
average daily attendance rather than enrollment as one factor in 
determining percentage rankings, but he used as the other factor an 
estimate of school population that was clearly questionable as to 
accuracy, because it was so inconsistent with school enrollment. 

For Rhode Island the index number for per cent of average daily 
attendance in 1918 is 48.99, as determined by the author in the 
manner indicated above. The state school reports for the same year, 
based upon official returns of enrollment, attendance, and school 
population shown by the school census, give 52.55 per cent of average 
daily attendance in public schools. The variation of almost four 
per cent may be explained by the author's use of an estimated figure 
for school population, which was not as accurate as the figure re- 
turned from a school census taken for the year. Moreover, the 
author omitted altogether from his calculations enrollment in private 
and parochial schools, which in Rhode Island in 1918 was 18.4 per 
cent of total enrollment. Presuming a relatively similar ratio of 
average daily attendance to enrollment, the Rhode Island index 
figure for average daily attendance on school population should be 
64.39. With this correction Rhode Island might rise from thirty- 
eighth to tenth position in the ranking of states by this test, the 
relative rise depending upon the actual effect of this omitted factor 
in other states. It seems certain that a large part of the greater 
progress in the west than in the east emphasized by the author would 
be discounted were credit given to the eastern states for average 
daily attendance on private instruction, which in a group of states 
along the eastern seaboard averages 20 per cent. 



6 RHODE tSLAND*S RANK: AMONG THE STATES. 

2. Average days attended by each child of school age. — For purposes 
of this test the total number of days of attendance in public schools 
is divided by school population, and the quotient is again divided by 
two. The second division is made "in order to make it comparable 
with percentage figures." The same criticism of the use of estimated 
school population as one factor in the test may be made as in test 
one. The test is also subject to criticism because it omits days of 
attendance on private instruction, and counts children enrolled in 
private schools and parochial schools as part of school population. 
If the test be interpreted as indicating in days the actual provision 
of public school education made by the state for each child of school 
age, perhaps no further comment need be made. As the test in most 
instances, however, will be interpreted as indicating the number of 
days of schooling for each child of school age in the state it is per- 
missible to point out the probability of error in this interpretation, 
by showing what the state's index number might be under the second 
interpretation. 

The author gives 47.25 as Rhode Island's index number for school 
days per child of school population, calculated upon estimated school 
population. Official returns in Rhode Island School Reports give 
50.71. If reasonable allowance for instruction in private and 
parochial schools were made, the index figure would be 62.14 if attend- 
ance on private instruction were counted, or 60.03 if enrollment in 
private and parochial schools were omitted in the count of school 
population. 

3. Average number of days schools were kept open. — For purposes 
of this test the school year is divided by two, in order to reduce the 
index figure to the type of percentage figures. Rhode Island is 
credited with a school year of 193 days, whereas the credit should 
be 194 days, and the index number should be 97 instead of 96.50. 
Rhode Island has the longest average school year in the United 
States and ranks first in this test. 

4. Per cent high school attendance was of total attendance. — This 
test assumes an essentially even age and grade distribution of pupils 
in a course of twelve grades, eight elementary and four secondary, 
and that in a perfectly organized system, which carried every boy 
and girl through the course, there would be two-thirds of enrollment 
in elementary schools, and one-third of enrollment in secondary 
schools. The index number is three times the percentage of high 
school enrollment to total enrollment, another adjustment made by 



RHODE Inland's rank among the states. 7 

the author to weight his averages on a percentile basis. Both assump- 
tions diverge widely from fact and experience. California, which 
holds highest rank in 1918, showed 19.6 per cent of pupils enrolled 
in high schools, contrasted with the 333^ per cent assumed as perfect. 
The state holding lowest place had index number 10.28 which 
indicates 3.43 per cent. Hhode Island's index number was 34.48, or 
11.49 per cent. As has been pointed out repeatedly in these reports, 
Rhode Island's largest educational loss appears in the years of school 
age beyond the years of compulsory school age. It is cause for 
serious consideration that so many of the young people of the state 
neglect or are deprived of opportunities for secondary education. 
There is at present urgent necessity for enlarged high school accom- 
modations in four Rhode Island cities, but even more urgent nec- 
essity for the development of public sentiment strongly in favor of 
extension of high school education to a much larger percentage of our 
youth. 

In this test figures are taken exclusively from public school records, 
and the test is not subject to the general criticism that it omits en- 
rollment in private secondary schools. The author assumes that 
public high schools gain relatively from admitting pupils graduated 
from private and parochial elementary schools, and that this assumed 
gain tends to offset omission of the factor of private instruction in 
other tests. The assumption seems scarcely warranted in experience. 
The number actually transferring from private to public school at the 
period of graduation from elementary schools is known to be very 
small. In most instances, school education is completed with 
graduation from private elementary schools, or if continued, is 
continued in private secondary schools. This is true of parochial as 
well as of private schools. 

5. Per cent that hoys were of girls in high schools. — The author's 
only explanation of the significance of this test is: "This item is 
included in the final total at its face value. In general many more 
girls attend high school than do boys, but the proportion of boys is 
increasing. Its limit is taken as 100 per cent. In the very Jew 
instances in which more hoys have heen recorded than girls, the per cent 
of girls to hoys has heen used.'' Surely it is a good rule that works 
both ways. The test is to be taken at its face value, which may be 
nothing at all. 

6. Average expenditure per child in average attendance. —The index 
number is found by dividing total expenditures by the average num- 



8 RHODE island's RANK AMONG THE STATES. 

ber of children attending school. In criticism of this measurement 
it may be said that the factors of numbers to be educated and the 
size of schools are neglected. Comparisons of expenditures by Rhode 
Island towns on the basis of per capita of average attendance almost 
invariably show an advantage in lower cost in cities and compact or 
closely settled towns. Assuming employment of two teachers at 
$1,200 annual salary, and average attendance of forty pupils in the 
school taught by one, and of twenty pupils in the school taught by 
the other, the per capita cost of instruction in the first school would 
be $30; in the second school it would be $60. In the ranking of 
towns by this test the second school would hold a higher position than 
the first; yet the quality of instruction measured by the teacher's 
salary would be the same in both instances. In the ranking of 
states by index numbers for 1918 it is to be noted that the western 
states, with comparatively small schools, rank higher generally than 
the eastern states. It is clear that this measure should be modified 
or weighted in some way by the introduction of the factor of size of 
school. If that were done, test eight, in which the index number is 
the total expenditure for schools divided by the number of teachers, 
might be omitted. Certainly a factor so significant in probable 
effect upon test six should not be used as the basis for another 
measurement. 

7. Average expenditure per child of school age. — Here the index 
number is obtained by dividing total expenditure by school popula- 
tion. The author assumes that a state in which large numbers are 
educated in private schools is relieved of responsibility for these 
children and should be able, therefore, to expend a greater per 
capita for children enrolled in school. The total amount expended, 
therefore, should not vary for the same number of children, and in 
the general average the standing of the state will not be affected by 
the number enrolled for private instruction if it is doing its entire 
duty by the children enrolled in public schools. The assumption 
will not appeal to an educator who has had experience in the ad- 
ministration of schools. The people, while generous in taxing them- 
selves for the support of public education, do not encourage ex- 
travagance. The acid test of school efficiency is not the amount of 
expenditures so much as the return upon the expenditure. It is still 
true that the people can afford to make larger investments in public 
education, and that improvement in schools may be accomplished 
in most instances by larger expenditures. But when expenditures 



RHODE island's RANK AMONG THE STATES. 9 

for education are increased, it should be demonstrated that the in- 
creased expenditure has been productive of improvement. That is 
to say, another test should follow the test of expenditure to deter- 
mine the value of the increased expenditure. There is a large num- 
ber of tests of efficiency that might be applied, including the prepara- 
tion of the teacher, the quality of instruction, the percentage of 
graduations on total enrollment, the percentage of promotions, the 
sanitary conditions of buildings, etc., etc. 

For Rhode Island and other states in which a considerable pro- 
portion of children are educated in private schools, a fairer test would 
be based upon school population diminished by the number of 
children enrolled for private instruction, for whom no public pro- 
vision actually is made. Rhode Island's index number would be 
33.64 instead of 27.45, were the measurement taken by the method 
suggested. 

8. Average expenditure per teacher employed. — The test is essen- 
tially a measurement of the average expenditure per school, but 
varies from a true measurement on this basis because the total 
number of teachers is used instead of the average number of teachers 
or the number of schools. Rhode Island's position of twelfth by this 
test is not low; it is not possible with data available to estimate a 
change in position to be determined by the number of schools instead 
of the number of teachers. But the difference may be computed 
approximately on the basis of the average number of teachers. It is 
noticeable that the eastern states relatively hold higher positions in 
this test than do the western states. Rhode Island's index number 
on the base of the average number of teachers would be 62.68, instead 
of 57.50, as given by the author. 

9. Expenditure for other purposes than teachers' salaries. — Total 
expenditure for other purposes than teachers' salaries is divided by the 
number of children in average daily attendance and multiplied by 
two. The multiplication, of course, emphasizes the advantage of a 
large quotient by the division, and while it has no effect on standings 
by this test, does affect standings in the combination of tests. The 
author assigns no reason for this particular test. It may be suggested 
that there is as good reason for dividing this expenditure by the 
number of schools, or the average number of teachers, as by. the 
number of children in average daily attendance. As a matter of 
fact, the author in his test divides other expenditures by the number 
of children receiving instruction, and in the next test the amount 



10 RHODE r6LAND's RANK AMONG THE STATES. 

expended for teachers' salaries by the number of teachers, without 
giving any vahd reason for the difference and distinction. 

10. Expenditure per teacher employed for salaries. — This test 
essentially ranks the states on the basis of monthly salaries, for the 
total amount expended for salaries is divided by twelve times the 
total number of teachers. The essential error of an averaging of 
salaries on the base of the total number of teachers was discussed in 
the Commissioner's report for 1919. The teacher's salary is properly 
averaged on the base of the number of teaching positions. If, for 
instance, six schools are conducted, and $1,200 is paid for each school 
as salary for the teacher, the average salary would be SlOO per month 
on the whole year basis, if there were no changes during the year. 
Were there one instance in which a teacher died or resigned and was 
replaced, the total number of teachers would be seven, and the 
average monthly salary based on the total number of teachers would 
be $85.71. If two teachers were replaced the average would be $75. 
Yet the salary paid for the position has remained constant. The error 
is clear. For 1918 by his method, the author computes the average 
teacher's salary in Rhode Island at $736.08. On the base of the 
average number of teachers employed it was $801.65, which would 
give an index number of $66.80 instead of $61.34. 

The following table presents for comparison the index mark in the 
ten tests as computed by the author, and the index number corrected 
as indicated: 

Author Corrected 

Test 1, attendance 48. 99 64. 39 

Test 2, days attended 47.25 62. 14 

Test, 3, length of school year 96.50 97.00 

Test 4, high school attendance on elementary 

school attendance 34. 48 34. 48 

Test 5, boys to girls in high schools 81 . 43 81 . 43 

Test 6, average expenditure per average attend- 
ance 56.03 56.03 

Test 7, average expenditure per child of school 

age 27.45 33.64 

Test 8, average expenditure per teacher 57 . 50 62 . 68 

Test 9, expenditure per pupil for miscellaneous 

purposes 52 . 29 52 . 29 

Test 10, teachers' salaries 61 . 34 66. 80 

Index for all tests 56. 33 61 . 09 



RHODE island's RANK AMONG THE STATES. 11 

An index number of 61.09 for all tests would carry Rhode Island 
from twenty-sixth into ninth place, assuming that all other states 
retained the index numbers assigned by the author. There would, 
however, be changes in the positions of other states, including a general 
improvement for eastern states, and a corresponding loss for western 
states, the relative change depending very largely upon the in- 
accuracy of the estimates of school population used by the author and 
the percentage of school population receiving private instruction. It 
is probable that in the process of change Rhode Island's position 
would be higher rather than lower than ninth, assuming that the 
western states at the top were removed to lower positions, and that 
eastern states made relatively similar gains to those made by Rhode 
Island and simply advanced in the order established in the author's 
table, subject to shght variation in the order depending upon the 
relative and variable effects of the factors indicated. 

Whatever opinion may be held as to the desirability of eliminating 
private instruction, and enforcing attendance upon public instruction 
exclusively, it appears reasonable that school systems should be 
measured as they are under the laws of the state for the time being, 
and that measurements based upon an assumed standard otherwise 
should be reasonably discounted. In this connection it is inter- 
esting to record that there has been a widespread criticism of the 
index numbers as published, and that the official publication of the 
Bureau of Education has declared that the measurements are not to 
be interpreted as reasonably accurate because of the neglected factor 
of variation in the growth of population. It would have been better 
had the author withheld his book until the census of 1920 had been 
completed, and a basis given for a comparison upon the census; and 
it would be fairer to measure all state systems with reasonable con- 
sideration for the effect of private school attendance upon enroll- 
ment and attendance. The author's study unquestionably has 
awakened a fresh interest in the improvement of state school systems. 
Rhode Island schools may profit by criticism, even if the criticism is 
not wholly merited, because criticism sometimes stimulates measures 
for improvement. 



